Zhongyuan Sun

Reading lists Stream 11Search all readings

Social networks and embeddedness

Embeddedness, weak ties, structural holes, brokerage and interorganizational networks.

Of its 349 readings, 61 are assigned in two or more sources and listed first, with the number of sources beside each (in bold for the core readings, in 4 or more); the 288 listed in only one source are folded under each heading.

In the theory tree: grows out of 1 Social theory; leads to 12 Status and social evaluation.

Drawn from: Martin (Berkeley); Maoret (IESE); Zuckerman (MIT); Pollock (Tennessee); Chandrasekhar & Jackson (Stanford); Clough (UBC); Marquis (HBS); Yue (USC); Sullivan (HKUST); Lu, Li, Park, Yang & Yan (CityU); Dobbin (Harvard); Fiss (USC); Peng (UT Dallas); DiMaggio (Princeton); Lounsbury & Zhao (Oxford Bibliographies); Anteby (Boston University); Wan (CUHK); Zhou (HKU); Amit (Wharton); Levinthal (Wharton); Yiu (CUHK); Jia (USC); Kogut & Keum (Columbia). Full details of the sources are on the reading lists page.

By decade

Before 1950: 2 readings<19501950s: 9 readings1950s1960s: 11 readings1960s1970s: 31 readings1970s1980s: 33 readings1980s1990s: 89 readings1990s2000s: 103 readings1032000s2010s: 61 readings2010s2020s: 6 readings2020s
Most date from the 2000s; half were published in 1999 or later.

11.1 Embeddedness and network forms of organization

  1. Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology, 91(3), 481–510. https://doi.org/10.1086/22831115
  2. Uzzi, B. (1997). Social Structure and Competition in Interfirm Networks: The Paradox of Embeddedness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.2307/23938087
  3. Uzzi, B. (1996). The Sources and Consequences of Embeddedness for the Economic Performance of Organizations: The Network Effect. American Sociological Review, 61(4), 674. https://doi.org/10.2307/20963996
  4. Uzzi, B. (1999). Embeddedness in the Making of Financial Capital: How Social Relations and Networks Benefit Firms Seeking Financing. American Sociological Review, 64(4), 481. https://doi.org/10.2307/26572525
  5. Powell, W. W. (1990). Neither market nor hierarchy: Network forms of organization. Research in Organizational Behavior.4
  6. Ingram, P., & Roberts, P. W. (2000). Friendships among Competitors in the Sydney Hotel Industry. American Journal of Sociology, 106(2), 387–423. https://doi.org/10.1086/3169653
  7. Polanyi, K. (1944). The Great Transformation. Farrar & Rinehart.2
  8. Salancik, G. R., & Burt, R. S. (1995). WANTED: A Good Network Theory of Organization. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(2), 345. https://doi.org/10.2307/23936422
  9. Podolny, J. M., & Page, K. L. (1998). Network Forms of Organization. Annual Review of Sociology, 24(1), 57–76. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.572
12 more, listed in one source
  1. Polanyi, K. (1957). The economy as instituted process. In Trade and market in the early empires.
  2. Larson, A. (1992). Network Dyads in Entrepreneurial Settings: A Study of the Governance of Exchange Relationships. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(1), 76. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393534
  3. Portes, A., & Sensenbrenner, J. (1993). Embeddedness and Immigration: Notes on the Social Determinants of Economic Action. American Journal of Sociology, 98(6), 1320–1350. https://doi.org/10.1086/230191
  4. Saxenian, A. (1994). Regional Advantage. Harvard University Press.
  5. Jones, C., Hesterly, W. S., & Borgatti, S. P. (1997). A General Theory of Network Governance: Exchange Conditions and Social Mechanisms. Academy of Management Review, 22(4), 911. https://doi.org/10.2307/259249
  6. Uzzi, B. (1999). Social Relations and Networks in the Making of Financial Capital. American Sociological Review, 64, 481–505.
  7. Azoulay, P. (2004). Agents of Embeddedness. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 10142. https://doi.org/10.3386/w10142
  8. Krippner, G. R., & Alvarez, A. S. (2007). Embeddedness and the Intellectual Projects of Economic Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 33(1), 219–240. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131647
  9. Azoulay, P., Repenning, N. P., & Zuckerman, E. W. (2010). Nasty, Brutish, and Short: Embeddedness Failure in the Pharmaceutical Industry. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55(3), 472–507. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.2010.55.3.472
  10. Sytch, M., & Kim, Y. H. (2013). Embeddedness. In Encyclopedia of Creativity, Invention, Innovation and Entrepreneurship (pp. 567). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3858-8_100284
  11. Samila, S., & Sorenson, O. (2017). Community and Capital in Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth. American Sociological Review, 82(4), 770–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417711699
  12. Doering, L. (2018). Risks, Returns, and Relational Lending: Personal Ties in Microfinance. American Journal of Sociology, 123(5), 1341–1381. https://doi.org/10.1086/696214

11.2 Networks and markets

  1. Podolny, J. M. (2001). Networks as the Pipes and Prisms of the Market. American Journal of Sociology, 107(1), 33–60. https://doi.org/10.1086/3230389
  2. White, H. C. (1981). Where Do Markets Come From? American Journal of Sociology, 87(3), 517–547. https://doi.org/10.1086/2274954
  3. Baker, W. E. (1984). The Social Structure of a National Securities Market. American Journal of Sociology, 89(4), 775–811. https://doi.org/10.1086/2279442
8 more, listed in one source
  1. Swedberg, R. (1994). Markets as Social Structures. In N. J. Smelser & R. Swedberg (Eds.), The Handbook of Economic Sociology (pp. 255–282). Princeton University Press.
  2. McLEAN, P., & Padgett, J. F. (1997). Was Florence a perfectly competitive market? Transactional evidence from the Renaissance. Theory and Society, 26(2-3), 209–244. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1006813224951
  3. Eisenberg, L., & Noe, T. H. (2001). Systemic Risk in Financial Systems. Management Science, 47(2), 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.47.2.236.9835
  4. MacKenzie, D., & Millo, Y. (2003). Constructing a Market, Performing Theory: The Historical Sociology of a Financial Derivatives Exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 109(1), 107–145. https://doi.org/10.1086/374404
  5. Zuckerman, E. W. (2003). On Networks and Markets, edited by Rauch and Casella. Journal of Economic Literature, 46, 545–565.
  6. Zuckerman, E. W. (2004). Shrewd, crude or simply deluded? Comovement and the internet stock phenomenon. Industrial and Corporate Change, 13(1), 171–212. https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/13.1.171
  7. Diekmann, A., Jann, B., Przepiorka, W., & Wehrli, S. (2014). Reputation Formation and the Evolution of Cooperation in Anonymous Online Markets. American Sociological Review, 79(1), 65–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122413512316
  8. Yenkey, C. B. (2018). Fraud and Market Participation: Social Relations as a Moderator of Organizational Misconduct. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(1), 43–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839217694359

11.3 Strong and weak ties, social capital

  1. Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The Strength of Weak Ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380. https://doi.org/10.1086/2254699
  2. Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. https://doi.org/10.1086/2289439
  3. Hansen, M. T. (1999). The Search-Transfer Problem: The Role of Weak Ties in Sharing Knowledge across Organization Subunits. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(1), 82–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/26670323
  4. Granovetter, M. (1972). Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers. Harvard University Press.2
  5. Sorenson, O., & Rogan, M. (2014). (When) Do Organizations Have Social Capital? Annual Review of Sociology, 40(1), 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-0432222
27 more, listed in one source
  1. Bott, E. (1955). Urban Families: Conjugal Roles and Social Networks. Human Relations, 8(4), 345–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675500800401
  2. Fischer, C. S., & Stueve, C. A. (1977). 'Authentic Community': The Role of Place in Modern Life. In C. Fischer (Ed.), Networks and Places. The Free Press.
  3. Lin, N., Ensel, W. M., & Vaughn, J. C. (1981). Social Resources and Strength of Ties: Structural Factors in Occupational Status Attainment. American Sociological Review, 46(4), 393. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095260
  4. Kadushin, C. (1982). Social Density and Mental Health. In P. Marsden (Ed.), Social Structure and Network Analysis.
  5. Fischer, C. S. (1982). To Dwell Among Friends. University of Chicago Press.
  6. Marsden, P. V. (1987). Core Discussion Networks of Americans. American Sociological Review, 52(1), 122. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095397
  7. Wellman, B., & Wortley, S. (1990). Different Strokes from Different Folks: Community Ties and Social Support. American Journal of Sociology, 96(3), 558–588. https://doi.org/10.1086/229572
  8. Krackhardt, D. (1992). The Strength of Strong Ties: The Importance of Philos in Organizations. In Networks and Organizations: Structure, Form, and Action.
  9. Antonucci, T. C., Sherman, A. M., & Akiyama, H. (1996). Social networks, support, and integration. In J. E. Birren (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Gerontology: Age, Aging, and the Aged (pp. 505–514). Academic Press.
  10. Flache, A., & Macy, M. W. (1996). The weakness of strong ties: Collective action failure in a highly cohesive group. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 21(1-2), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250x.1996.9990172
  11. Goodwin, J. (1997). The Libidinal Constitution of a High-Risk Social Movement: Affectual Ties and Solidarity in the Huk Rebellion, 1946 to 1954. American Sociological Review, 62(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657452
  12. Fung, H. H., Carstensen, L. L., & Lang, F. R. (2001). Age-Related Patterns in Social Networks among European Americans and African Americans: Implications for Socioemotional Selectivity across the Life Span. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 52(3), 185–206. https://doi.org/10.2190/1abl-9be5-m0x2-lr9v
  13. Bolino, M. C., Turnley, W. H., & Bloodgood, J. M. (2002). Citizenship Behavior and the Creation of Social Capital in Organizations. Academy of Management Review, 27(4), 505. https://doi.org/10.2307/4134400
  14. Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S.-W. (2002). Social Capital: Prospects for a New Concept. Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.2307/4134367
  15. Fischer, H. M., & Pollock, T. G. (2004). Effects of social capital and power on surviving transformational change: The case of initial public offerings. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4), 463–481. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159597
  16. Kana'iaupuni, S. M., Donato, K. M., Thompson-Colon, T., & Stainback, M. (2005). Counting on Kin: Social Networks, Social Support, and Child Health Status. Social Forces, 83(3), 1137–1164. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0036
  17. Inkpen, A. C., & Tsang, E. W. K. (2005). Social Capital, Networks, and Knowledge Transfer. Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 146–165. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2005.15281445
  18. Oh, H., Labianca, G., & Chung, M.-H. (2006). A Multilevel Model of Group Social Capital. Academy of Management Review, 31(3), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2006.21318918
  19. Maurer, I., & Ebers, M. (2006). Dynamics of Social Capital and Their Performance Implications: Lessons from Biotechnology Start-ups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51(2), 262–292. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.51.2.262
  20. Aral, S., & Van Alstyne, M. (2011). The Diversity-Bandwidth Trade-off. American Journal of Sociology, 117(1), 90–171. https://doi.org/10.1086/661238
  21. Kwon, S.-W., & Adler, P. S. (2014). Social Capital: Maturation of a Field of Research. Academy of Management Review, 39(4), 412–422. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2014.0210
  22. Abraham, M. (2015). Explaining Unequal Returns to Social Capital among Entrepreneurs. Academy of Management Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2015.227
  23. Walter, J., Levin, D. Z., & Murnighan, J. K. (2015). Reconnection Choices: Selecting the Most Valuable (vs. Most Preferred) Dormant Ties. Organization Science, 26(5), 1447–1465. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2015.0996
  24. Fonti, F., & Maoret, M. (2016). The direct and indirect effects of core and peripheral social capital on organizational performance. Strategic Management Journal, 37(8), 1765–1786. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2409
  25. Perry-Smith, J. E., & Mannucci, P. V. (2017). From Creativity to Innovation: The Social Network Drivers of the Four Phases of the Idea Journey. Academy of Management Review, 42(1), 53–79. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2014.0462
  26. Offer, S., & Fischer, C. S. (2018). Difficult People: Who Is Perceived to Be Demanding in Personal Networks and Why Are They There? American Sociological Review, 83(1), 111–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417737951
  27. Eubank, N., & Kronick, D. (2021). Friends Don’t Let Friends Free Ride. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 16(4), 533–557. https://doi.org/10.1561/100.00020143

11.4 Structural holes, brokerage and closure

  1. Burt, R. S. (1992). Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition. Harvard University Press.9
  2. Burt, R. S. (2004). Structural Holes and Good Ideas. American Journal of Sociology, 110(2), 349–399. https://doi.org/10.1086/4217874
  3. Burt, R. S. (2002). Bridge decay. Social Networks, 24(4), 333–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-8733(02)00017-52
  4. Burt, R. S. (2005). Brokerage and Closure: An Introduction to Social Capital. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199249145.001.00012
  5. Obstfeld, D. (2005). Social Networks, the Tertius Iungens Orientation, and Involvement in Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 50(1), 100–130. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.2005.50.1.1002
  6. Burt, R. S. (2007). Secondhand Brokerage: Evidence On The Importance Of Local Structure For Managers, Bankers, And Analysts. Academy of Management Journal, 50(1), 119–148. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2007.241620822
  7. Lingo, E. L., & O'Mahony, S. (2010). Nexus Work: Brokerage on Creative Projects. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55(1), 47–81. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.2010.55.1.472
  8. Kleinbaum, A. M. (2012). Organizational Misfits and the Origins of Brokerage in Intrafirm Networks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 57(3), 407–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/00018392124611412
  9. Theeke, M., Polidoro, F., Jr., & Fredrickson, J. W. (2018). Path-dependent Routines in the Evaluation of Novelty: The Effects of Innovators’ New Knowledge Use on Brokerage Firms’ Coverage. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(4), 910–942. https://doi.org/10.1177/00018392177472692
30 more, listed in one source
  1. Simmel, G. (1964). Quantitative Aspects of the Group. In The Sociology of Georg Simmel. Free Press.
  2. Caro, R. A. (1982). The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power. Alfred A. Knopf, Chapters 31 and 32 (Case).
  3. Burt, R. S. (1983). Range. In R. S. Burt & M. J. Minor (Eds.), Applied Network Analysis.
  4. Burt, R. S. (1992). The Social Structure of Competition. In N. Nohria & R. Eccles (Eds.), Networks and Organizations.
  5. Gargiulo, M. (1993). Two-Step Leverage: Managing Constraint in Organizational Politics. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393252
  6. Fernandez, R. M., & Gould, R. V. (1994). A Dilemma of State Power: Brokerage and Influence in the National Health Policy Domain. American Journal of Sociology, 99(6), 1455–1491. https://doi.org/10.1086/230451
  7. Gould, R. V. (1996). Patron-Client Ties, State Centralization, and the Whiskey Rebellion. American Journal of Sociology, 102(2), 400–429. https://doi.org/10.1086/230951
  8. Walker, G., Kogut, B., & Shan, W. (1997). Social Capital, Structural Holes and the Formation of an Industry Network. Organization Science, 8(2), 109–125. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.8.2.109
  9. McEvily, B., & Zaheer, A. (1999). Bridging ties: a source of firm heterogeneity in competitive capabilities. Strategic Management Journal, 20(12), 1133–1156. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(199912)20:12<1133::aid-smj74>3.0.co;2-7
  10. Ahuja, G. (2000). Collaboration Networks, Structural Holes, and Innovation: A Longitudinal Study. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45(3), 425–455. https://doi.org/10.2307/2667105
  11. Burt, R. S. (2000). The Network Structure Of Social Capital. Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, 345–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-3085(00)22009-1
  12. Burt, R. S. (2001). Structural Holes vs. Network Closure as Social Capital. In N. Lin, K. S. Cook, & R. S. Burt (Eds.), Social Capital: Theory and Research. Aldine de Gruyter.
  13. Reagans, R., & McEvily, B. (2003). Network Structure and Knowledge Transfer: The Effects of Cohesion and Range. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(2), 240–267. https://doi.org/10.2307/3556658
  14. Pollock, T. G., Porac, J. F., & Wade, J. B. (2004). Constructing Deal Networks: Brokers as Network "Architects" in the U.S. IPO Market and Other Examples. Academy of Management Review, 29(1), 50. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159008
  15. Ryall, M. D., & Sorenson, O. (2007). Brokers and Competitive Advantage. Management Science, 53(4), 566–583. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1060.0675
  16. Fernandez-Mateo, I. (2007). Who Pays the Price of Brokerage? Transferring Constraint through Price Setting in the Staffing Sector. American Sociological Review, 72(2), 291–317. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200208
  17. Shipilov, A. V., & Li, S. X. (2008). Can you have your Cake and Eat it too? Structural Holes' Influence on Status Accumulation and Market Performance in Collaborative Networks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53(1), 73–108. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.53.1.73
  18. Reagans, R. E., & Zuckerman, E. W. (2008). Why knowledge does not equal power: the network redundancy trade-off. Industrial and Corporate Change, 17(5), 903–944. https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtn036
  19. Tortoriello, M., & Krackhardt, D. (2010). Activating Cross-Boundary Knowledge: The Role of Simmelian Ties in the Generation of Innovations. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1), 167–181. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.48037420
  20. Valderes, B., & Stark, D. (2010). Structural folds. American Journal of Sociology.
  21. Tortoriello, M., Reagans, R., & McEvily, B. (2012). Bridging the Knowledge Gap: The Influence of Strong Ties, Network Cohesion, and Network Range on the Transfer of Knowledge Between Organizational Units. Organization Science, 23(4), 1024–1039. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1110.0688
  22. Stovel, K., & Shaw, L. (2012). Brokerage. Annual Review of Sociology, 38(1), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150054
  23. Battilana, J., & Casciaro, T. (2012). Change Agents, Networks, and Institutions: A Contingency Theory of Organizational Change. Academy of Management Journal, 55(2), 381–398. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.0891
  24. Burt, R. S. (2012). Network-Related Personality and the Agency Question: Multirole Evidence from a Virtual World. American Journal of Sociology, 118(3), 543–591. https://doi.org/10.1086/667856
  25. Ter Wal, A. L. J., Alexy, O., Block, J., & Sandner, P. G. (2016). The Best of Both Worlds: The Benefits of Open-specialized and Closed-diverse Syndication Networks for New Ventures’ Success. Administrative Science Quarterly, 61(3), 393–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839216637849
  26. Piskorski, M. J., & Gorbatâi, A. (2017). Testing Coleman’s Social-Norm Enforcement Mechanism: Evidence from Wikipedia. American Journal of Sociology, 122(4), 1183–1222. https://doi.org/10.1086/689816
  27. Clement, J., Shipilov, A., & Galunic, C. (2018). Brokerage as a Public Good: The Externalities of Network Hubs for Different Formal Roles in Creative Organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(2), 251–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839217708984
  28. Halevy, N., Halali, E., & Zlatev, J. J. (2019). Brokerage and Brokering: An Integrative Review and Organizing Framework for Third Party Influence. Academy of Management Annals, 13(1), 215–239. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2017.0024
  29. Burt, R. (n.d.). The Social Origins of Good Ideas.
  30. Reagans, R. E., Zuckerman, E. W., & McEvily, B. (n.d.). Two Holes in One? Information and Control in the Analysis of Structural Advantage. Working Paper, MIT Sloan School of Management.

11.5 Interorganizational networks, alliances and interlocks

  1. Mizruchi, M. S. (1996). What Do Interlocks Do? An Analysis, Critique, and Assessment of Research on Interlocking Directorates. Annual Review of Sociology, 22(1), 271–298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.2716
  2. Powell, W. W., Koput, K. W., & Smith-Doerr, L. (1996). Interorganizational Collaboration and the Locus of Innovation: Networks of Learning in Biotechnology. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(1), 116. https://doi.org/10.2307/23939885
  3. Gulati, R., & Gargiulo, M. (1999). Where Do Interorganizational Networks Come From? American Journal of Sociology, 104(5), 1439–1493. https://doi.org/10.1086/2101793
  4. Sorenson, O., & Stuart, T. E. (2001). Syndication Networks and the Spatial Distribution of Venture Capital Investments. American Journal of Sociology, 106(6), 1546–1588. https://doi.org/10.1086/3213013
  5. Lincoln, J. R., Gerlach, M. L., & Ahmadjian, C. L. (1996). Keiretsu Networks and Corporate Performance in Japan. American Sociological Review, 61(1), 67. https://doi.org/10.2307/20964072
  6. Jensen, M. (2003). The Role of Network Resources in Market Entry: Commercial Banks' Entry into Investment Banking, 1991–1997. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48(3), 466–497. https://doi.org/10.2307/35566812
  7. Davis, G. F., Yoo, M., & Baker, W. E. (2003). The Small World of the American Corporate Elite, 1982-2001. Strategic Organization, 1(3), 301–326. https://doi.org/10.1177/147612700300130022
  8. Powell, W. W., White, D. R., Koput, K. W., & Owen‐Smith, J. (2005). Network Dynamics and Field Evolution: The Growth of Interorganizational Collaboration in the Life Sciences. American Journal of Sociology, 110(4), 1132–1205. https://doi.org/10.1086/4215082
  9. Zuckerman, E. W., & Sgourev, S. V. (2006). Peer Capitalism: Parallel Relationships in the U.S. Economy. American Journal of Sociology, 111(5), 1327–1366. https://doi.org/10.1086/4995062
22 more, listed in one source
  1. Roy, W. G. (1983). The Unfolding of the Interlocking Directorate Structure of the United States. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 248. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095109
  2. Palmer, D., Friedland, R., & Singh, J. V. (1986). The Ties That Bind: Organizational and Class Bases of Stability in a Corporate Interlock Network. American Sociological Review, 51(6), 781. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095367
  3. von Hippel, E. (1987). Cooperation between rivals: Informal know-how trading. Research Policy, 16(6), 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-7333(87)90015-1
  4. Mizruchi, M. S., & Stearns, L. B. (1988). A Longitudinal Study of the Formation of Interlocking Directorates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33(2), 194. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393055
  5. Schrader, S. (1991). Informal technology transfer between firms: Cooperation through information trading. Research Policy, 20(2), 153–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-7333(91)90077-4
  6. Mizruchi, M. (1992). The Structure of Corporate Political Action: Interfirm Relations and Their Consequences. Harvard University Press.
  7. Granovetter, M. (1995). Business Groups. In N. J. Smelser & R. Swedberg (Eds.), Handbook of Economic Sociology. Princeton University Press.
  8. Appleyard, M. M. (1996). How does knowledge flow? Interfirm patterns in the semiconductor industry. Strategic Management Journal, 17(S2), 137–154. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250171112
  9. Keister, L. A. (1998). Engineering Growth: Business Group Structure and Firm Performance in China's Transition Economy. American Journal of Sociology, 104(2), 404–440. https://doi.org/10.1086/210043
  10. Kono, C., Palmer, D., Friedland, R., & Zafonte, M. (1998). Lost in Space: The Geography of Corporate Interlocking Directorates. American Journal of Sociology, 103(4), 863–911. https://doi.org/10.1086/231292
  11. Dyer, J. H., & Nobeoka, K. (2000). Creating and managing a high-performance knowledge-sharing network: the Toyota case. Strategic Management Journal, 21(3), 345–367. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(200003)21:3<345::aid-smj96>3.0.co;2-n
  12. Rowley, T., Behrens, D., & Krackhardt, D. (2000). Redundant governance structures: an analysis of structural and relational embeddedness in the steel and semiconductor industries. Strategic Management Journal, 21(3), 369–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(200003)21:3<369::aid-smj93>3.0.co;2-m
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  22. Tatarynowicz, A., Sytch, M., & Gulati, R. (2016). Environmental Demands and the Emergence of Social Structure: Technological Dynamism and Interorganizational Network Forms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 61(1), 52–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839215609083

11.6 Networks inside organizations and careers

  1. Podolny, J. M., & Baron, J. N. (1997). Resources and Relationships: Social Networks and Mobility in the Workplace. American Sociological Review, 62(5), 673. https://doi.org/10.2307/26573542
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  4. Briscoe, F., & Tsai, W. (2011). Overcoming Relational Inertia: How Organizational Members Respond to Acquisition Events in a Law Firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56(3), 408–440. https://doi.org/10.1177/00018392114325402
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  16. Smith, E. B., Menon, T., & Thompson, L. (2012). Status Differences in the Cognitive Activation of Social Networks. Organization Science, 23(1), 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1100.0643
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  20. Rider, C. I., & Tan, D. (2015). Labor Market Advantages of Organizational Status: A Study of Lateral Partner Hiring by Large U.S. Law Firms. Organization Science, 26(2), 356–372. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2014.0907

11.7 Homophily and how networks form

  1. Ibarra, H. (1992). Homophily and Differential Returns: Sex Differences in Network Structure and Access in an Advertising Firm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(3), 422. https://doi.org/10.2307/23934513
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  22. Kleinbaum, A. M., Stuart, T. E., & Tushman, M. L. (2013). Discretion Within Constraint: Homophily and Structure in a Formal Organization. Organization Science, 24(5), 1316–1336. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1120.0804
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11.8 Diffusion and contagion

  1. Strang, D., & Soule, S. A. (1998). Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements: From Hybrid Corn to Poison Pills. Annual Review of Sociology, 24(1), 265–290. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.2654
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11.9 Centrality, power and exchange

  1. Marsden, P. V. (1983). Restricted Access in Networks and Models of Power. American Journal of Sociology, 88(4), 686–717. https://doi.org/10.1086/2277293
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  15. Gould, R. (2002). The Evolution of Status Hierarchies. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 1143–1178.
  16. Fuller, S., & Martin, J. L. (2003). Women's Status in Eastern NRMs. Review of Religious Research, 44(4), 354. https://doi.org/10.2307/3512215
  17. Martin, J. L., & Fuller, S. (2004). Gendered Power Dynamics in Intentional Communities. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67(4), 369–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/019027250406700403
  18. Lawler, E. J., Thye, S. R., & Yoon, J. (2008). Social Exchange and Micro Social Order. American Sociological Review, 73(4), 519–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300401
  19. Molm, L. D. (2010). The Structure of Reciprocity. Social Psychology Quarterly, 73(2), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272510369079
  20. Kuwabara, K. (2011). Cohesion, Cooperation, and the Value of Doing Things Together: How Economic Exchange Creates Relational Bonds. American Sociological Review, 76(4), 560–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122411414825
  21. Willer, R., Flynn, F. J., & Zak, S. (2012). Structure, Identity, and Solidarity: A Comparative Field Study of Generalized and Direct Exchange. Administrative Science Quarterly, 57(1), 119–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839212448626
  22. Piezunka, H., Lee, W., Haynes, R., & Bothner, M. S. (2018). Escalation of competition into conflict in competitive networks of Formula One drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1717303115
  23. Simpson, B., Harrell, A., Melamed, D., Heiserman, N., & Negraia, D. V. (2018). The Roots of Reciprocity: Gratitude and Reputation in Generalized Exchange Systems. American Sociological Review, 83(1), 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417747290

11.10 Roles, positions and duality

  1. Nadel, S. F. (1957). The Theory of Social Structure. Free Press.2
  2. White, H. C., Boorman, S. A., & Breiger, R. L. (1976). Social Structure from Multiple Networks. I. Blockmodels of Roles and Positions. American Journal of Sociology, 81(4), 730–780. https://doi.org/10.1086/2261412
  3. Burt, R. S. (1982). Towards a Structural Theory of Action. Academic Press.2
43 more, listed in one source
  1. Heider, F. (1946). Attitudes and Cognitive Organization. The Journal of Psychology, 21(1), 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1946.9917275
  2. Simmel, G. (1955). Conflict and The Web of Group-Affiliations. Free Press.
  3. Harary, F. (1955). On local balance and $N$-balance in signed graphs. Michigan Mathematical Journal, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1307/mmj/1031710532
  4. Cartwright, D., & Harary, F. (1956). Structural balance: a generalization of Heider's theory. Psychological Review, 63(5), 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046049
  5. White, H. (1961). Management Conflict and Sociometric Structure. American Journal of Sociology, 67(2), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1086/223084
  6. White, H. (1963). An Anatomy of Kinship: Mathematical Models for Structures of Cumulated Roles. Prentice-Hall.
  7. Friedell, M. F. (1967). Organizations as Semilattices. American Sociological Review, 32(1), 46. https://doi.org/10.2307/2091717
  8. Levi-Strauss, C. (1969). The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Beacon Press.
  9. Holland, P. W., & Leinhardt, S. (1970). A Method for Detecting Structure in Sociometric Data. American Journal of Sociology, 76(3), 492–513. https://doi.org/10.1086/224954
  10. Lorrain, F., & White, H. C. (1971). Structural equivalence of individuals in social networks. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 1(1), 49–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250x.1971.9989788
  11. Holland, P. W., & Leinhardt, S. (1971). Transitivity in Structural Models of Small Groups. Comparative Group Studies, 2(2), 107–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/104649647100200201
  12. Scott, J. C. (1972). Patron-Client Politics and Political Change in Southeast Asia. American Political Science Review, 66(1), 91–113. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959280
  13. Davis, J., & Leinhardt, S. (1972). The Structure of Positive Interpersonal Relations in Small Groups. In J. Berger, M. Zelditch, Jr., & B. Anderson (Eds.), Sociological Theories in Progress (Vol. 2, pp. 218–251). Houghton Mifflin.
  14. Nathan, A. J. (1973). A Factionalism Model for CCP Politics. The China Quarterly, 53, 34–66. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0305741000500022
  15. Landé, C. H. (1973). Networks and Groups in Southeast Asia: Some Observations on the Group Theory of Politics. American Political Science Review, 67(1), 103–127. https://doi.org/10.2307/1958529
  16. Breiger, R. L. (1974). The Duality of Persons and Groups. Social Forces, 53(2), 181. https://doi.org/10.2307/2576011
  17. Park, G. (1974). The Idea of Social Structure. Anchor Books.
  18. Breiger, R. L., Boorman, S. A., & Arabie, P. (1975). An algorithm for clustering relational data with applications to social network analysis and comparison with multidimensional scaling. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 12(3), 328–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-2496(75)90028-0
  19. Holland, P. W., & Leinhardt, S. (1976). Local Structure in Social Networks. Sociological Methodology, 7, 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/270703
  20. Burt, R. S. (1976). Positions in Networks. Social Forces, 55(1), 93. https://doi.org/10.2307/2577097
  21. Boorman, S. A., & White, H. C. (1976). Social Structure from Multiple Networks. II. Role Structures. American Journal of Sociology, 81(6), 1384–1446. https://doi.org/10.1086/226228
  22. Barnes, J. A. (1977). Classes and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Social Networks: A Developing Paradigm (pp. 233–252). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-442450-0.50021-3
  23. Chase, I. D. (1980). Social Process and Hierarchy Formation in Small Groups: A Comparative Perspective. American Sociological Review, 45(6), 905. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094909
  24. McPherson, J. M. (1982). Hypernetwork sampling: Duality and differentiation among voluntary organizations. Social Networks, 3(4), 225–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(82)90001-6
  25. Wellman, B. (1983). Network Analysis: Some Basic Principles. Sociological Theory, 1, 155. https://doi.org/10.2307/202050
  26. Johnsen, E. C. (1985). Network macrostructure models for the Davis-Leinhardt set of empirical sociomatrices. Social Networks, 7(3), 203–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(85)90015-2
  27. Breiger, R. L., & Pattison, P. E. (1986). Cumulated social roles: The duality of persons and their algebras. Social Networks, 8(3), 215–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(86)90006-7
  28. Tjon Sie Fat, F. E. (1990). Representing Kinship: Simple Models of Elementary Structures. Leiden University.
  29. Borgatti, S. P., & Everett, M. G. (1992). Notions of Position in Social Network Analysis. Sociological Methodology, 22, 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/270991
  30. Boudon, R., & White, H. C. (1993). Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action. Contemporary Sociology, 22(3), 311. https://doi.org/10.2307/2074478
  31. Calhoun, C., & White, H. C. (1993). Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action. Contemporary Sociology, 22(3), 314. https://doi.org/10.2307/2074479
  32. Bearman, P. (1993). Relations into Rhetorics: Local Elite Social Structure in Norfolk, England, 1540-1640. Rutgers University Press.
  33. Meyer, M. (1993). Review of Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action by Harrison White. Contemporary Sociology.
  34. Tilly, C. (1993). Review of Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action by Harrison White. Contemporary Sociology.
  35. Pattison, P. (1994). Algebraic Models for Social Networks. Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511571220
  36. Abbott, A., & White, H. C. (1994). Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action. Social Forces, 72(3), 895. https://doi.org/10.2307/2579786
  37. Freeman, L. C. (1996). Cliques, Galois lattices, and the structure of human social groups. Social Networks, 18(3), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(95)00271-5
  38. Bearman, P. (1997). Generalized Exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 102(5), 1383–1415. https://doi.org/10.1086/231087
  39. Faust, K., & Skvoretz, J. (2002). Comparing Networks across Space and Time, Size and Species. Sociological Methodology, 32(1), 267–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9531.00118
  40. Breiger, R. L. (2003). The Analysis of Social Networks. In M. Hardy & A. Bryman (Eds.), Handbook of Data Analysis (pp. 505–526). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608184.n22
  41. Yeung, K. T. (2005). The Duality of Persons and Relationships. Social Forces.
  42. Martin, J. L. (2006). Jointness and Duality in Algebraic Approaches to Dichotomous Data. Sociological Methods & Research, 35(2), 159–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124106290444
  43. Martin, J. L. (2009). Social Structures. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400830534

11.11 Small worlds and network topology

  1. Milgram, S. (1967). The small world problem. Psychology Today.2
  2. Feld, S. L. (1991). Why Your Friends Have More Friends Than You Do. American Journal of Sociology, 96(6), 1464–1477. https://doi.org/10.1086/2296932
  3. Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo97805118154782
  4. Watts, D. J. (1999). Networks, Dynamics, and the Small‐World Phenomenon. American Journal of Sociology, 105(2), 493–527. https://doi.org/10.1086/2103182
  5. Watts, D. J. (1999). Small Worlds: The Dynamics of Networks between Order and Randomness. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/97806911883312
  6. Bearman, P. S., Moody, J., & Stovel, K. (2004). Chains of Affection: The Structure of Adolescent Romantic and Sexual Networks. American Journal of Sociology, 110(1), 44–91. https://doi.org/10.1086/3862722
  7. Uzzi, B., & Spiro, J. (2005). Collaboration and Creativity: The Small World Problem. American Journal of Sociology, 111(2), 447–504. https://doi.org/10.1086/4327822
12 more, listed in one source
  1. Erdös, P., & Rényi, A. (1960). On the evolution of random graphs. Publications of the Mathematical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
  2. Dunphy, D. C. (1963). The Social Structure of Urban Adolescent Peer Groups. Sociometry, 26(2), 230. https://doi.org/10.2307/2785909
  3. Barabási, A.-L., & Albert, R. (1999). Emergence of Scaling in Random Networks. Science, 286(5439), 509–512. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.286.5439.509
  4. Borgatti, S. P., & Everett, M. G. (2000). Models of core/periphery structures. Social Networks, 21(4), 375–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-8733(99)00019-2
  5. Watts, D. J., Dodds, P. S., & Newman, M. E. J. (2002). Identity and Search in Social Networks. Science, 296(5571), 1302–1305. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1070120
  6. Dodds, P. S., Muhamad, R., & Watts, D. J. (2003). An Experimental Study of Search in Global Social Networks. Science, 301(5634), 827–829. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1081058
  7. Moody, J. (2004). The Structure of a Social Science Collaboration Network: Disciplinary Cohesion from 1963 to 1999. American Sociological Review, 69(2), 213–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240406900204
  8. Cattani, G., & Ferriani, S. (2008). A Core/Periphery Perspective on Individual Creative Performance: Social Networks and Cinematic Achievements in the Hollywood Film Industry. Organization Science, 19(6), 824–844. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1070.0350
  9. Jackson, M. O. (2008). Average Distance, Diameter, and Clustering in Social Networks with Homophily. In C. Papadimitriou & S. Zhang (Eds.), Proceedings of the Workshop in Internet and Network Economics (WINE 2008), Lecture Notes in Computer Science (pp. 4–11). Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-92185-1_3
  10. Bickel, P. J., & Chen, A. (2009). A nonparametric view of network models and Newman–Girvan and other modularities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907096106
  11. Kogut, B. (Ed.). (2013). The Small Worlds of Corporate Governance. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262017275.001.0001
  12. Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., & Allison, P. D. (2014). Insiders, Outsiders, and the Struggle for Consecration in Cultural Fields: A Core-Periphery Perspective. American Sociological Review, 79(2), 258–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414520960

11.12 Relational sociology: networks, culture, identity and fields

  1. Martin, J. L. (2002). Power, Authority, and the Constraint of Belief Systems. American Journal of Sociology, 107(4), 861–904. https://doi.org/10.1086/3431922
27 more, listed in one source
  1. Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers. Harper & Row.
  2. Silverstein, M. (1976). Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description. In K. H. Basso & H. A. Selby (Eds.), Meaning in Anthropology (pp. 11–55). University of New Mexico Press.
  3. Gal, S. (1979). Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria. Academic Press.
  4. Gibson, J. J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Houghton Mifflin.
  5. Carley, K. (1986). Knowledge acquisition as a social phenomenon. Instructional Science, 14(3-4), 381–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00051829
  6. Bourdieu, P. (1988). Homo Academicus. Stanford University Press.
  7. Schegloff, E. A. (1991). Conversation analysis and socially shared cognition. In L. B. Resnick, J. M. Levine, & S. D. Teasley (Eds.), Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition (pp. 150–171). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10096-007
  8. Salomon, G. (1993). No Distribution without Individuals' Cognition. In G. Salomon (Ed.), Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations (pp. 111–138). Cambridge University Press.
  9. Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the Wild. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1881.001.0001
  10. Gould, R. V. (1995). Insurgent Identities: Class, Community, and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune. University of Chicago Press.
  11. Abbott, A. (1995). Things of boundaries. Social Research, 62, 847–872.
  12. Erickson, B. H. (1996). Culture, Class, and Connections. American Journal of Sociology, 102(1), 217–251. https://doi.org/10.1086/230912
  13. McLean, P. D. (1998). A Frame Analysis of Favor Seeking in the Renaissance: Agency, Networks, and Political Culture. American Journal of Sociology, 104(1), 51–91. https://doi.org/10.1086/210002
  14. Mische, A., & White, H. (1998). Between Conversation and Situation: Public Switching Dynamics across Network Domains. Social Research, 65(3), 695–724.
  15. Breiger, R. L. (2000). A tool kit for practice theory. Poetics, 27(2-3), 91–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-422x(99)00026-1
  16. Mische, A., & Pattison, P. (2000). Composing a civic arena: Publics, projects, and social settings. Poetics, 27(2-3), 163–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-422x(99)00024-8
  17. Mische, A. (2003). Cross‐Talk in Movements: Reconceiving the Culture‐Network Link. In M. Diani & D. McAdam (Eds.), Social Movements Analysis: The Network Perspective (pp. 258–280). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0199251789.003.0011
  18. Martin, J. L. (2003). What Is Field Theory? American Journal of Sociology, 109(1), 1–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/375201
  19. Kaufman, J. (2004). Endogenous Explanation in the Sociology of Culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 30(1), 335–357. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110608
  20. Sonnett, J. (2004). Musical boundaries: intersections of form and content. Poetics, 32(3-4), 247–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2004.05.007
  21. Rawlings, C., & Bourgeois, M. (2004). The complexity of institutional niches:Credentials and organizational differentiation in a field of U.S. higher education. Poetics, 32(6), 411–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-422x(04)00057-9
  22. Fuhse, J. (2006). Gruppe und Netzwerk — eine begriffsgeschichtliche Rekonstruktion. Berliner Journal für Soziologie, 16(2), 245–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11609-006-0019-z
  23. Martin, J. L., & George, M. (2006). Theories of Sexual Stratification: Toward an Analytics of the Sexual Field and a Theory of Sexual Capital. Sociological Theory, 24(2), 107–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0735-2751.2006.00284.x
  24. Slez, A., & Martin, J. L. (2007). Political Action and Party Formation in the United States Constitutional Convention. American Sociological Review, 72(1), 42–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200103
  25. Fuhse, J. A. (2008). Gibt es eine Phänomenologische Netzwerktheorie? Soziale Welt, 59(1), 31–52. https://doi.org/10.5771/0038-6073-2008-1-31
  26. White, H. (n.d.). Social Networks Can Help Resolve Actor Problems.
  27. White, H. (n.d.). Switching Talk.

11.13 Other readings

No reading here is assigned in more than one source.

1 reading listed in one source
  1. Badaracco, J. (1984). Mark Twain Bancshares, Inc. Harvard Business School Case 9-385-178 (Case).